VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VIDEO GAMES TO RESEARCH

     As I gear up to analyzing violence in modern games, I've made a note of what key games I should research. They need to be varied, highlight issues, facilitate conclusions and most importantly, support the evidence and research I've found. However, I do hope that these games offer more questions, as that will only develop my knowledge on the subject and ensure my research is informed and valid. 

• MANHUNT
• GRAND THEFT AUTO
• CALL OF DUTY: MODERN WARFARE 2
• MORTAL KOMBAT (PAST AND PRESENT)
• SOLDIER OF FORTUNE 1 / 2
• KARMAGEDDON

    I hope to draw solid conclusions from these and the previous games that contain violence, but to be honest  I think although I will, it will still mostly be opinions facilitated by research and evidence. Violence in games is a controversial topic that has many sides, but no solid evidence to solidify any argument as the definitive answer.

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: TIMELINE TEMPLATE

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: THE EFFECT OF VIOLENCE IN GAMES AND IT'S CONTROVERSIES

        There are many effects gaming can induce on society, some positive and some negative, but as many arguments as there are, the main argument that arises whenever games are discussed in depth is violence in games, and whether or not they influence the violence of gamers across the world. If a child plays a violent game, does the gamer become violent? It’s a question that both sides can provide evidence for in support to their beliefs. Some people say gamers can be made into murderers through games that allow gamers to practice murder (Grand Theft Auto being the most common controversial example), where as some people believe those murderers are murderers from birth, it’s just the frustration games sometimes induce that pushes them over the limit. Some people actually believe and have evidence that games have the opposite effect on gamers, that games have a positive effect. There are two pieces of evidence, (of which by no means are the only pieces of evidence), that support each side. A recent article on a study on the Telegraph website and a crime story on a well respected business and crime website Prvada.net
   
       As discussed, gaming has long had a bad reputation to influence negative effects on gamers, whether violence, depression or addiction. But what hasn’t been so widely promoted is that gaming has been said to produce positive effects on gamers, a recent article on the telegraph supports this claim. Games such as Manhunt (banned twice in multiple countries) and Grand Theft Auto (victim to potential banning) where gamers are rewarded in game cash for killing or attacking victims, are consistently blamed for a steady rise in violent crime. This is mainly because many murder cases have evidence that games such as the above mentioned, were “to blame” for the killings. However the article on the Telegraph Website mentions a report, named “Understanding the Effects of Violent Video Games on Violent Crime” by respected academics has stated they do not believe there is a link.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/video-games/8798927/Violent-video-games-reduce-crime.html

    The report above was released earlier this year, and states: "Psychological studies invariably find a positive relationship between violent video game play and aggression. To date, though there is evidence that violent video games cause aggression in a laboratory setting, there is no evidence that violent video games cause violence or crime." 

    So really there is no evidence in any case, that games can directly cause violence in a real world setting. They are taking aggression in a laboratory setting, exaggerating it, applying it and linking it directly to the few extreme cases reported. So it could merely just be coincidence. The report continues to add, “...laboratory studies may be poor predictors of the net effects of violent video games in society. Consequently, they overstate the importance of video game induced aggression as a social cost”. This statement does make sense, as there are millions if not billions of gamers out there; the majority of them do get frustrated however only the select few go to the extreme. Therefore there really isn't enough evidence to directly accuse violent games of causing the violent acts the select few do commit. For some reason, they assume a game causes aggression, then the gamer gets up, walks outside and then has a fight, when the article has evidence that actually states, “rather than violent crime rates soaring when new violent video games are released, they actually drop as gamers are 'too busy' at home playing the games” adding, "Time spent gaming cannot be spent on other activities, both legitimate activities and illicit violent activities.". This doesn't necessarily disprove the opposing side’s theories, but it does make sense on some scale. It cannot disprove that games make people more passively violent, violent enough to commit a crime on society, whether murder or stealing a chocolate bar. The article continues with, "Many researchers have argued that these games may also have caused extreme violence, such as school shootings, because laboratory evidence has found an abundance of evidence linking gameplay to aggression.” Yet although we can agree that there is a link between gaming and aggression the article also states, "Yet few studies before this one had examined the impact of these games on crime”, this is interesting, as this is what everybody generalizes the term “Video Game Violence” to, they assume games cause crime, even though no evidence shows this besides the odd few extreme cases of psychologically ill people ‘finally’ snapping.

       In my personal opinion, games themselves have both a negative and positive effect. Yes it is true people get aggressive on games, I myself have experienced and witnessed this, but along with this there is the happiness and positive effects they have on you. When you’re not angry you’re being rewarded, which makes you happy and in turn, less violent. Haters seem to forget that polar emotion. I know many people and many forums that suggest being aggressive in a game a great way of venting stress rather than inducing it upon the gamer.
The article finally finishes by taking into account gamers spending more time on the game than committing crime and lack of evidence by concluding with;

"Overall, violent video games lead to decreases in violent crime."

   But let’s be honest, even though I can refuse games directly cause violence and crime, you cannot ignore the extreme cases. That is in the end why the argument has risen. So let’s take a recent tragic story into account of a young boy who spontaneously killed his father. The article states “after first killing his sleeping father with a sledge hammer and then waking his mother and demanding that she return the keyboard that she had taken away from him. After committing the murder he calmly went and finished playing his favorite computer game Gothic.” It is an extreme story where such a young soul could commit such an instant disturbing crime. It is admittedly unnatural, and the game was the center of the cause, but we must remember this is a child that doesn't really know the difference between right and wrong, but was also too naive to understand such a violent crime as murder. Did the game teach him to murder? Did his naivety understand this in game violence and acceptable? The issue is you cannot generalize a naive kid not understanding the difference between right and wrong as the truth about gaming. Yes the game ’may’ have taught him about violence, and he ‘may’ of absorbed the violence as acceptable, but developers moderate and rate these games so that children cannot get their hand on these violent games. It is up to the parents of the child to protect their kids from such graphic content. Developers may deny the direct link to the games and violence, but they do not deny children can be influenced by it, so such a case really should become redundant, as it cannot be generalized to the worldwide pubic. To add the parent antagonized him angering him further, although I admit this still doesn't justify the murder, the game didn't play a part, but multiple factors also did, therefore the games cannot be directly and solely blamed. Therefore we must take another case into account.

AllAboutTheGame.co.uk has a recent article on a grown man committing murder ‘allegedly’ because of a game. The gamer of which was the fan favorite Call Of Duty, a game violent in nature but not as graphic as the kings of violence such as Manhunt and Grand Theft Auto. The man was playing the game with his flat mate in his apartment when “tensions escalated and they got into a fight”, the fight itself ended with “Johnson shooting Taylor in the back of the head.”. So here we have a grown man, clearly fully integrated into society, so surely a psychological sound man wouldn't kill his friend without some influence?

http://www.allaboutthegames.co.uk/feature_story.php?article_id=9061

   No other evidence was provided, so all that we have was a man who was playing a game for “fun” with his friend and the ordeal ending with his friend dead with multiple shots to the head. Johnson is now on trial for first degree murder. So we have two factors, the murdered, the friend and the game. At first glance you would defiantly blame the game for the violence, as that was the topic of the fight. If ever there was a case that could prove the link between violence and video games this is it. However thousands of people play against each other on games much like if not worse than Call of Duty every day and every night, sometimes when drunk or after a previous argument, yet they don’t commit murder. So you need to look deeper. Firstly this man actually had a gun, so he was clearly capable of such a crime in the first place, he could have intended on harming somebody in the first place. Secondly the friend was arguing with him to, so clearly it was the argument that escalated the violence in the apartment. So once again even though the case suggests the link it existent, the evidence and details of it suggest otherwise. I guess violence in video games is an argument that will never be solved. I do not believe violence is linked to games, but I can see why people would make such a generalization  after all it makes sense at first glance like I said. But I can also see the other side of the argument that many people share with me.

     A point I wish to add is that when gamers show aggression it is because they have failed in completing the goal of the game. This is true for all genres, even the games that are not violent; it’s a natural human reaction to reflect negative emotions when we experience failure. It isn't the violence within the game itself that causes the aggression, which is a general assumption of many haters. However some people may disagree with me, stating that because the violence in games is rewarded, the gamers naturally associate violence with positive connotations, therefore they do not see violence as a negative action. However to think that an everyday person could forget the difference between right and wrong in such an extreme case from just paying one videogame is absurd. From cases mentioned in this argument, the people who forget such a difference are clearly psychological unstable or have some issues.

   My personal opinion is, all gamers get frustrated by games at some point, it is in the design to reward and punish the player at equal levels to create an immersive entertaining experience no other medium can. Games aim to draw emotion out of the gamer in order to immerse them in the only medium that they can control the outcome of. However although it is in fact true that all gamers can get frustrated, that is not to say all gamers immediately go outside and commit murder and crime. The cases shown clearly show there is an issue with the gamer rather than the game.   I truly believe it’s because only the negative effects and extreme cases are revealed to the public rather than the positive effects gaming can have that creates the generalization of violence in video games, therefore the haters try their best to generalize slight aggression in a laboratory to extreme cases of murder in an uncontrolled environment, there’s to little evidence to suggest such a direct link and cause. I admit gaming may cause aggression or frustration, but it is in the mind and heart of the gamers to hold them self back and distinguish between right and wrong; they control the game, they control themselves. It’s the people with some form of medical or social imbalance that cause the violence and give a bad name to games in terms of violence. I personally believe taking the opinions and evidence on board; that the violence is in the gamer playing the game rather game being played by the gamer.

    Like I said games provide an experience that immerse emotionally. Yes they can cause aggression, but they can also cause, laughter, tears and maybe even paranoia (after effect of horror games). Which brings me onto the next argument, can games cause people to lose track of reality? Can gamers being to see a blur in the line between virtual reality and reality? How bad is Video game Addiction? Evidence suggests it is very bad, and although I do not believe games are bad, I believe without moderation they can have negative effects. However unlike violence in games, over immersion within games can only be moderated by the gamer, therefore if a gamer has an addictive personality, or other underlying issues, they can in fact feel the negative effects games present.  This is a matter I definitely agree with and believe exists, as I have seen it myself. Such underlying issues can really effect a gamer. The resulting effects of such a negative are that the gamer may find it hard to re enter society, they may become social recluses. They may become addicted to the game, therefore lose track of time and life outside of their computer screen without even noticing as they are too busy enjoying themselves but literally loosing themselves within the game. They may become depressed as real life isn’t as stimulating as the virtual reality. These are all issues that can present themselves through the game. After all games are in some cases more exciting than life, hence why they were created, just like Movies (which have had their share of controversy and blame for violence). But like I said the risk are there, but it’s up the gamer to address those risks rather than fall to them. A disturbing but fascinating story that highlights these ever-present risks is a story on IGN.com not a month ago of a neglecting gaming mother.

     In Taiwan, a young single mother of a 3 month old baby boy was an avid fan of a online gaming society, of which one of the game mechanics was looking after a virtual child; feeding it at the appropriate times, bathing it etc. The mother became so addicted to this game, that she neglected her actual child for 2 weeks. The child died of starvation and thirst; the mother of which only realized her child had died 3 days later. She claimed her reasons for neglecting where that “she needed to feed her child online”. It’s this kind of gross negligence that spawns such arguments. Indeed the game itself did indirectly play a part in the child’s death; however the mother’s sheer lack of responsibility, courtesy and emotion within the situation clearly shows she has psychological issues (maybe post natal depression) and wasn't fit to look after her child. It was her direct negligence of her child and psychological instability that caused the death of her child, not the game itself. It was never designed to facilitate the death of children, rather to provide the experience of looking after a child. The games intentions where positive, where as the mothers where not, however still people believe a story like this proves games have extremely negative effects on society and the people who play them, they believe if it wasn't for the games addictive attributes the mother would never have become so neglecting. 

  Once again a seemingly perfect way to blame games on a negative effect on society has fallen to other explanations, I do agree games present the risks above, but it’s the gamer who controls the game that controls themselves, not the game controlling them. This woman along with other clearly had issue before they started playing the game; it’s just the risks the game presents that highlighted her issues.

   There are many other stories, even a documentary called “My World in Warcraft” documents addicted gamers who play the MMORPG “World of Warcraft” and their individual stories of how they lost all of their friends and family to online gaming addiction. Some cases the gamers lose their jobs, in some extreme cases they ended up in hospital from exhaustion. In fact one gamer even died from lack of food and drink. This is the extremities game addiction can cause, therefore they clearly exist. There are reports of over 3 Millions addicted gamers worldwide; it just goes to show the extent it can affect society. So yes, games can have a negative effect on society, not enough to be noticeable by everyone, but for those caught in the gaming addiction trap, it’s completely noticeable. It’s a sad but true statistic that highlights the risks of gaming. I still passionately believe that it is still down to the gamer. Yes life isn't as fun as a game, but you can still put the controller down and enjoy the little things in life, you just need to get up, go out and find them, which brings us to the positives’ of gaming on society.

   It is ‘possible’ games can cause violence directly or indirectly. It is ‘possible’ that games can cause addiction and loosing track of reality, but it is ‘proven’ that games can bring together society and even educate. Comparing the possible to the proven, I would say gaming has a positive effect on society rather than negative.

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: IGN VIOLENCE ARTICLE

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: GLADIATOR MATCHES (150-400 AD)

         Probably the most famed and recognizable ancient blood sport of them all - Gladiator Matches. It's a concept that not only spawned a brilliant Oscar winning film, but countless modern digital video games on all platforms. It was a sport that's outlasted countless generations and thus, was a clear point of research from the very beginning.

GLADIATOR MATCHES - 150 - 300 AD

      While the general perception of 'Gladitor Events' is easily discussed, there is actually an interesting story behind them - they weren't always the blind massacre like entertainment events they are often seen as. It's quite an interesting find in this research, it's development over the years is quiet contrasting and highlights some interesting points on how violence in games can be influential, much like Venatio's transition from legitimate hunting, to blind blood sport fun with no real justification other than cultural entertainment.

     Held in 'Empitheatrums' (a Colosseum), structures specifically built for this blood sport spectacle, Gladiator Matches were a huge event for the upper class that used the lower class as a money making violent entertainment source. Slaves, criminals, the lower class and many other unfortunate citizens were the 'players', forced into an arena to fight to the death, some times against animals (Venatio) as pre-events, but in this case, against other gladiators, also criminals, slaves or lower class citizens.

     The image above pretty much sums the Gladiator Match up. These 'players' would be suited with various levels of armor (depending on their fame), be thrown into an arena, watched by many citizens as they fought to the death, all whilst spectators and government officials waged money on which gladiator would survivor. Survivors often became famous and thus, adorned the heavy armor to get the crowd going and money flowing through wagers.

Three things are notable when the research topic is considered - the game's nature itself, the 'classes of gladiators, and it's contrasting origins.

     The common perception of the gladiator match (the most popular version), shares many similarities to games nowadays. The structure of a game is still, even thousands of years after other game research posts, remains the same. There is an environment, a conflict, players, and goal, and a reward for the winners. The interesting fact here, just like Venatio, is how the spectators are the real 'players'. The spectators, are entertained by the violence and death, which could highlight some interesting points about why we players find violence or gore so entertaining. I really need to do a post covering this psychological angle soon. It's starting to become a clear pattern that could define this entire research project.

     The second find in my research of Gladiator Matches is how there were many 'classes' of Gladiators. The 'Horseman', the 'Heavy Weapons Fighter', the 'Fish', the 'Attacker', the 'Netman', the 'Pursuer' and any many more - each completely reflect today's game classes. There's one for the 'Tank', one for the 'Scout' and one for the Assasin.

    It's not the fact that these classes are evident in games even then, it's the fact that these classes exist in games with violence. Each 'class' forces the player, in this case the spectators, to question whether their player can overcome the challenge and avoid a violent death. In Gladiatorial Matches, it's not just players being murdered that's the entertainment, its wondering how they will die, as these classes present possible different violent scenarios that although could cause the player to lose out, still provide entertainment - violence is the primary entertainment source of this game, the classes add to that possible violence and add dynamics to the game as a result. In this case, violence determines how the players 'play, whilst providing a source of entertainment. 

     If a game had you loosing bubbles when you were hit, there would be no tension, but if the player's mortality is threatened through violence, then there is tension. So is violence just a source of shallow entertainment or does it go deeper than that when games are concerned? It seems, that there is nothing like potential death to ramp up the entertainment, gore just adds to the entertainment - if you die through violence, you lose, but it was still entertaining, if you overcome it, you inflict violence, but you are rewarded. Do violent games  re-enforce the idea that violence is acceptable, that violence is rewarding? Whether intentional or not, this famed sport when compared to similarly structured games nowadays definitely seems to point in that direction. Different dynamics through a game feature like classes seem to fuel this entertainment through violence by adding dynamics and tension.

     The final interesting point relates to culture, not similar game structure or how violence is entertaining. It's the Gladiator Matches' origins and development. Originating as a 'Funeral Game', gladiator matches originally occurred at a highly respected citizen's funeral, the first recorded game occurring at Junios Brutus's funeral in 264 BC, they were a payment of respect to the deceased and their ancestors. But such exclusivity was soon lost in favor of the large spectator sport we all know. So what caused this sudden transition? Well, violence. The idea of violence is something that intrigues us now and then, maybe such a match allowed spectators to enjoy violence and accept it without experiencing it them self, after all, violence is punishable. And as Scott Roger's says "Games allows players to experience something they cannot in reality". Does this define why violence is in almost all games, especially in the Roman rule where violence is punishable by death? Does it tap into our animalistic nature, subdued by morality and society, only stimulated by these violent games?

    My next post will undoubtedly cover a wide range of opinions of violence in games. How is it perceived? Why is it perceived as it is? Where is it? And where are it's effects seen? It will answers many questions that at this point, I need to answer. But it's clear to say, that the Gladiator Matches have solidified clear patterns in this research. This the research on ancient blood sports seems to be enough to identify the patterns, but without answering the questions these pose, I cannot draw a clear link between then and now when violence in games is concerned. So I 'may' put a cap to this ancient research and start to focus on the topics that provide the clear answers, not theories. Violence is culture and violence is entertainment. What hasn't been answered, is whether violence in games effects culture or whether culture effects violence in games. With this answered through research on animalistic instincts, psychology of violence and studies on the effects of violent games, I cannot generate any solid conclusion from this research.

GLADIATOR RESEARCH LINKS

http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/arena.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: THE EFFECT OF VIOLENCE IN GAMES AND IT'S CONTROVERSIES

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VENATIO (190 AD)

      After researching Caligula's Death Machine, I started to research around that Roman dominated time period for other extreme blood sports and conveniently, I found a really interesting blood sport named Venacio. A sport that not only continues the theme apparent in all of my research posts, but a sport that highlights and interesting point on how games can influence culture.

VENACIO - 1900 AD

  Venacio is the Roman Empire's answer to Call of Duty's Veteran difficulty - it's pretty much a certain death game. Again, it's a spectators sport where the player seem to draw the short straw. Pretty much a game of slaves versus Elephants, slaves would be tossed into an gladiators arena, not eager to be killed, and would have to hunt elephants with basic weaponry (or at least weaponry that wasn't suited to the scenario). In some cases, it wasn't elephants, but rest assured, it was never an animal that was easy game. An common contender was the Lion or Tiger for it's ferocious attitude.

    These Venacio hunting events have a huge mortality rate, quiet obviously, and where held the day before a Gladiator events (something I'll clearly be researching in a future post) as a kind of support act to the main event. Now, even though many slaves did die brutal deaths, the mortality rate of the animal wasn't something to be proud of, in some cases, up to 9000 animals were slaughtered in one Venacio event, especially in an inauguration of a Colosseum, most notably, 'the' Colosseum.

Three things make this sport interesting when the research topic is considered - one, its goals and violence, two its actual use, and three its influence on culture.

     As with many of these blood sports, there are always players, always enemies, always a goal of survival and in every case, there is always violence, either as entertainment or an indicator of success. In this case, violence is for the spectators, not the player, unlike the Vikings Skin Pulling antics. Although spectators would place wealthy bets on the 'famed' slaves. So, I think it's pretty clear now that violence in games have one of two uses throughout history, either for entertainment or indication of reward. What's interesting about this, is that violence has the exact same use now. But why is it frowned upon today? This leads us onto the next point - Culture.

     Surprisingly enough, this animal versus human blood sport is what spawned a surge of animal hunting  Whether for entertainment or for legitimate resources (Hyde, Tusks, Meat etc). I'm sure PETA would have a lot to say about this now, which just goes to show why concerns are raised in games today. Back then, a game like Venacio was incredibly influential on the primary beneficiaries of the game, so why is it impossible for players to be motivated to kill another human nowadays? This sport is a clear indicator that games can influence the games. It's not an unrealistic assumption that games can be detrimental to society.

     Finally, with Venacio, you can again see how games were a measure of power. With the Masoamerican Ballgame, it was a conflict solver. With the Vikings, it was a measure and motivation of power. With the Death Machine, it was an egotistical problem solver. Now, with Venacio, we have yet again, another game to reflect power - the leaders with the most exotic animals were considered the most wealthy. Kind of like a modern strategy game no? The real players are the leaders and spectators  not the slaves or animals, they are the tools to measure power.

    So yet again, we have another blood sport that reinforces the pattern emergent here, whilst also highlight the contrast and similarities between violence in games now, and violence in games then. A couple more blog posts on violence in ancient games to fill in the date gaps, and then I think I'll move onto modern games and psychological undertones to bring it all together in a nice, informative and conclusive timeline.

         Considering there are clear re-occurring themes here, in my future research posts, I only lightly highlight an evident following of the pattern, if there is a stray from this pattern as culture changes, then I shall definitely discuss it for future reference.

As I'm focusing on ancient sports at this present time, my group partner Andrew, has been focusing on violence in board games ranging from all eras. Have a look!

ANDREW SHUFFLETON - VIOLENCE BLOGS

LINK

NEXT POST: COMING SOON!

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VIKINGS: TUG OF WAR (SKIN PULLING) 1000AD

        Vikings were never subtle in their methods, but when researching various blood sports of the past, I came across a strikingly brutal variation of the child friendly tug of war, a variation called Skin Pulling. It doesn't take a genius to imagine how this variation of Tug of War played out does it?

     While there's no specific origin date or point of when Tug of War became tradition, there are reports of the Tang dynasty often took part in the game, dating all the way back to 8th century BC. These large scale competitions are reported to of had 1000 players (500 on each team) with drum players for encouragement! Mental! That's some pretty extreme competition, but to be honest the stakes weren't that high - it was simply a source of competition and entertainment. Similar reports of Tug of War suggest Egypt and even England (where it was presumably popularized by Lord Elliott Simpson) took part in the odd game of Tug of War. But when you follow these dates, you eventually arrive at Scandinavia, where the alarming Viking stories make them self known.

     Everyone knows the rules of Tug of War - two teams, one rope, one pull, and eventually, one stronger victor. The Viking spice things up a little though - two teams, many animal skins, one burning pit of fire, and one surviving team with lots of loot. As an attempt to prepare for upcoming battles, increase morale, and earn woman, Viking Warriors in Germany would stitch animal skins together to fashion a large rope and pose two teams against each other over a burning pit of fire. The losing team would then fall into the pit, die a painful death, leaving all of their belongings and woman to the winning team. Common prizes included the loot and most shockingly, raping rights of all the female villagers (there was such a thing as raping rights?)

VIKING SKIN PULLING
Did you know vikings never actually had horns?

  
  Now this is a blood sport if there was ever a single definition. But even in the extremities of the Viking ethos, it still shockingly conforms to the pattern I'm starting to see with the Ceaser's Death Machine and the Masoamerican Ball Game. It's interesting to see that even though all of these games are years and cultures apart, they all revolve around the competition of violence to gain a reward. Whats more interesting, is how each of the blood sports revolves around conflict and solution, exactly the same as digital games today. But what's more interesting, is how none of them involve woman - they are masculine sports. So does this link to primal instincts? I mean, these games are in fact cultures apart, in times were civilizations were untouched by others. So surely there must be underlying evolutionary and psychological explanation behind this? Male dominance? The Providing nature of the male? Males solve conflict through violence? Again, a future post when I start delving into the psychological side of violence. I need to answer a few missing links in this research. I can only do this once I've developed the whole picture though. But regardless, it's easy to see the pattern forming when it comes to games, violence and conflict.

    Masoamerican Ball Games where used to solve conflict and offer sacrifices to gods, the Death Machine solved the Emperor's conflicts for entertainment, and the Skin Pulling was used to increase morale and earn rewards. They are all so slightly different, but they all have a re-occurring theme - male focused violence with a link to conflict. I'd be interested to see if there are any female driven blood sports.

     Tug of War still exists today. In reality, it's just a fun sports for people of all ages - its a party game and a spectator's sport. But in digitally, where violence to resolve conflict had shifted to, Tug of War takes on many forms in first person shooter genre etc In fact, many games such as Halo use the same template as the Vikings did, just on a different platform that is more morally acceptable - teams kill each other to win a battle to earn the rewards. You can see the difference in platform, but you can see the similarity in concept.

     Already though, there is a clear contrast to then and now. Back then, violence was a common part of gaming and culture, now, violence in games is said to be detrimental to culture - its contradicting but highlights a possible cause. Even with this pattern emerging, there's still a few things I need to research before I can put my finger on any sole cause to these changes in morality. But it's, interesting to see how regardless of this morality, culture seemingly stays the same. Isn't modern gaming a male dominated community. Come to think of it, isn't war?

In all, a clear comparison between violence in games then and now, is the definition of the Viking Tug of War - "a sever contest of supremacy". It's just the audience that prompts concerns in today's society.

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VENATIO (190 AD)

VIOLENCE IN GAMES - CALIGULA DEATH MACHINE (37 - 41AD)

      Whilst researching how Vikings used violence in games (next post), I was told by a tutor about the 70's period film Caligula, a film that covered the famously unhinged Roman Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (known as Gaius), ruler from 37AD to 41AD. He'd created a Death Machine, especially designed to decapitate neck deep buried prisoners that he wanted dead. Back in that century execution was nothing unusual, but I've never seen anything even close to this scale before. It's frightening! As a further interesting note, this was used for entertainment, both for the unhinged Gaius and an upper class audience. Just look at the video and you'll know what I'm talking about.

    If you look at the deleted scene (which says something important in itself about how culture perceives violence as entertainment) from Caligula that shows this Death Machine in motion, there isn't much difference from violence in games nowadays - just it's medium. There are enemies (Prisoners), a means to cause violence (Death Machine), and players entertained by the results (Gaius and audience). Incredibly interesting when the topic is concerned!

I watched the video below and to be honest, it actually scared me. That wall is seriously intimidating!

       

     Obviously, Gaius had psychopathic tendencies (I read somewhere he was cannibalistic), and was the founder of this 'game' of execution, so this Death Machine is the anomaly of the research I've done so far (and probably until the end). However, it still says a lot about how violence was treated back in them days, as this event was still entirely entertainment.

     It's weird to think that back then, the officials and the upper class treated violence as an entertaining sport, but now, the upper class criticize it and it's supposed negative influence on society. Is this a sign that cultural morals have overpowered a possible primal instinct? Is it cultural evolution? I'll have to look at the psychological side of violence in an future post.

    It's quiet interesting to see how violence was a common and larger part of society than it's frowned upon image nowadays. A pattern I am seeing, considering the year jump from the last post, is how violence in 'games' was used as a method of not only entertainment, but as a means to resolve conflict. Back then, violence was literal as both a solution and as a source of entertainment, now, violence is literal in digital form as a source of entertainment. The only explanation I can see as of yet, is that culture is primary influencer in this difference. 

    The questionable difference between how violence was once perceived and how we perceive violence now, can only be answered by analysing the stark contrast the two cultures - again, a future post.

    So far, the two posts I have written recording past accounts of violence in games, is leading to two incredibly indicative topics - psychology and culture. Maybe these two topics can prove the passive focus of the timeline  Are these two directly to blame for how why violence is games and how violence is in games?

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VIKINGS: TUG OF WAR (SKIN PULLING) 1000AD

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: MASOAMERICAN BALL GAME (1500BC)

      Going as far back in history as I possibly can at this point (I'll most likely find earlier recordings), I have come across the insane sport named the Masoamaerican Ball Game - a central / south american ball game. It's actual goals and rules arent that bizzare when looked at as a closed system (in fact, theyre quiet similiar to ball games of today), but when looked at as a cultural system, the cultural importance and abnormalities reveal themself.

MASOAMERICAN BALL GAME - 1500BC
In-Game Illustration

     Yes, the game has teams, yes the game has a ball and yes, the game has goals, but what's important is its tendancy to become violent, as the Masoamerican Ball Game often served to faciltate cultural conflicts in the dawn of war (isolated or expansive).

    What I find interesting about this is it is clearly a 'game' in th eliteral sense at its core, but it serves to resolve conflict, rather than to purely entertain. It's cultural importance cannot be understated - it's a reflection of the values (honour, culture) of the civalisation's time. The striking detail I learnt, is that in some cases, sacrifices were made to gods before game - mental!

    It's crazy that the act of violence to win a 'game' determines which side is superior, both in-game and in cultural hierachy. But to be honest, it's not too disaimlar to modern games when you consider players use violence to succeed in a modern game to earn rewards, progress and feel strong adn 'awesome' (Gun Fire, Sword Fights etc). Violence in ancient games (blood sports) seems to highlight culture on some level and real life conflict while modern games use violence as entertainment and a means to feel 'cool'.

    Maybe this is a pattern I shall see in future reseach - the clear contrast between the and and now. Does  violence in games directly reflect culture and ideologies? Has its use and meaning changed? I'll find out as  trod down the timline until the present day.

For future reference, here is a quick over of this common game that has violent tendacies prompted through conflict.

The specifics of the ominously-titled “Mesoamerican Ballgame” aren’t well-known, and frankly, don’t matter that much. Two Central or South American teams would try to keep a ball in play in a long alley flanked by walls. Later, hoops would be added to the walls to serve as goals. The ball was moved with the Mayan players’ hips, but later their forearms or feet.

The game often served to resolve disputes in lieu of war, so the matches were taken VERY seriously. So seriously, in fact, that human sacrifices were made to the gods before games.

REFERENCE LINK

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: VIKINGS: TUG OF WAR (SKIN PULLING) 1000AD

VIOLENCE IN GAMES: INITIAL GOALS AND ARTICLES

      It's incredibly hard to find practical, never mind relieble evidence, when researching violence in games to draw an comprehensive and informed conclusion. Violence in Video Games is a topic with great coverage, arguments, speculations and conclusions, but beyond that, evidence seems to wane the deeper you delve into history or culture unless you know specificly what you are searching for.

So as a starting point, I have decided to path out my research. What do I want to know and what do I need to know? These are the questions that will be asked when researching violence in games (not just video games) as a whole. The answers to those questions are below and will form the basis of this assignment.

This is very much a living plan - further research can and may inform the direction of this study.

• Earliest recording of violence as a sport?
• Why violence in games before?
• Notable examples (dating to prehistoric)?
• Why violence in games now?
• Notable examples (modenr games and sports)?
• Why and is violence a pleasure?
• Why is violence prominant in games?
• Is there a passive pattern?
• Conclusion and future?

I believe that by answering these questions, I shall develop a comprehensive but concise journey documenting violence in games through the form of a visually rich timeline.

      Already a few articles show some importance in this research. It is importnat to note, that highlighting violence in games is not the single goal of this research, rather, the goal is to also understanding the reasoning behind violence in games then and now. Artciles found as of yet, may prove to be invaluable when answering the questions above.

9 INSANE SPORTS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

http://www.totalprosports.com/2011/05/23/9-insane-sports-of-the-ancient-world/

BLOODSPORTS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sport

THE VIOLENT ORIGIN OF SPORT

http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/basic-instincts/200812/the-violent-origin-sports

WHY DO PEOPLE RESORT TO VIOLENCE?

http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/stop-the-cycle/201112/why-do-people-resort-violence

These articles, along with many others, will be revisited and referenced to draw conclusions for this project. However I will not research alone. Both I and Andrew Shuffleton will work in co-operation to reach the target. Have at look at his blog post below.

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES: TIMELINE IDEAS

ANDREW SHUFFLETONS POST: VIOLENCE IN GAMES

ART DECO ESSAY (FINAL DRAFT)

         It’s a visually rich palette. It’s a modern statement. It’s mathematical and elegant. It’s an elitist movement, ripe with cultural influence. It’s Art Deco. Since it originated in 1900, Art Deco has shrouded the world with a culturally and technologically influenced art style. It became a symbol - It became an era. Manifesting from a sudden surge of technological progression, Art Deco embraced a generation through a plethora of art forms in “design and the decorative arts” (Carolyn Mcdowall, www.youtube.com, What is Art Deco, 2010) – architecture, interior design, furniture, decoration and even transport. With a huge thanks to an ensemble of key influential organisations, exhibitions and most importantly, designers - such as Hector Guimard, Eugene Grasset and Raoul Lachenal - Art Deco was not just propelled into the elite society for a temporary phase, it became an artistic revolution – a cultural icon of the 20^th century. Modern society recognises it, identifies with it and even to this day, exhibits its influence unknowingly. However, its journey was not short or straight – it rose, fell, reached its apex and eventually stamped its mark on arts history, on society’s history. And through recent years of disinterest and neglect, its rhythm has started to pulsate yet again - Art Deco “is enjoying a substantial revival of interest” (Eva Weber, E. W. (2003) Art Deco.  JG Press.) 

THE HISTORY AND JOURNEY OF ART DECO

    Holding an exaggerated “mirror” (Eva Weber, E. W. (2003) Art Deco. JG Press) to its times, Art Deco represented the cultural progression Paris witnessed in the late 19^th and early 20^th century. Technology had begun its worldwide journey through surges of interest and a loop of technological evolution. However, it didn’t just “become”, it was an influenced manifestation and departure from other movements - Art Nouveau, Modernism and Cubism. Carolyn Mcdowall believes “It borrowed from virtually all the design stars of the past in order to fashion the future” (www.youtube.com, What is Art Deco, 2010). In other words, it was a retrospective study of the past that gave its response with modern influence in order to lead the way - and it did.  Its aims focused on “simplifying form, streamlining it, and fitting it to suit function” (www.youtube.com, 2010) as Carolyn Mcdowall believes. Take the two examples to the right – the 1930’s decorative, geometrical staircase with iron bars and oak wreathed handrails, as well as the 21^st century clinical, mathematical and elegant staircase – you can see this design philosophy flowing within these two interior staircases. They are simple, they are streamlined - they are functional. But declared quondam, Art Deco resonated within a cluster of art forms within the decorative arts. Such examples are the colourfully bold stained glass window salvaged from old “residential homes from England” (www.stainedinglass.co.uk, 2004) or the iconic 1933 Chicago World's Fair poster, that summarised Art Deco on all parts and even the glorifying female “Flapper” fashion that revolutionised the independence of woman. This variety of examples grounds Art Deco’s embrace as a fact of life, not just an artistic theory – it defined a generation.

     Years passed, Art Deco hit its stride, its influence was felt and its apex finally arrived. Its penultimate stop - central between two world wars - and thus, its eventual wane in popularity. Why? The Great Depression. The war was less a physical, more an economic disaster, especially in France, with ArtHistory.net stating that “it did have to rebuild its economy after the Great Depression of 1929” (www.arthistory.net, 2009). Money was scarce, resultant from the financial redirection for arms and military defence. The result?  Industrialisation – everything was at the bare minimum, with no room for extravagant, elitist, biased design. Art Deco began to lose its cultural popularity, leaving in its wake a permanent shadow of its former self – cars, transport and architecture. Its most famous examples being the UK’s Midlands Hotel in Morecombe and the Parade of Progress transit van – projections of Art Deco’s artistic style (both seen above).

          Art Deco’s influential journey, from its rise to its fall, wouldn’t have been possible but for those who drove it, developed it and solidified it – its key Designers, Hector Guimard, Eugene Grasset and Raoul Lachenal, or to abbreviate it, the Decorative Artists Society

ART DECO’S KEY DESIGNERS

          What is the Decorative Artists Society? What did it do for Art Deco? Who were those involved? What was their influence on the movement? These are the questions that must be answered to appreciate Art Deco’s journey from an influenced idea to a movement that influenced the future.

    ArtHistory.net declares that the “founder of the Decorative Artists Society” was “Hector Guimard” (www.arthistory.net, 2009) along with other key influential designers. With the goal to demonstrate internationally, the evolution of French decorative arts, the Decorative Arts Society followed Art Nouveau and moulded Art Deco as an extension of its ornate heritage – a influenced predecessor – a homage with its own statement. Practicing with this goal and influence at its core, three early members used the Decorative Arts Society as a catalyst for creative expression - Hector Guimard, Eugene Grasset and Raoul Lachenal. However, their intrinsic talent existed long before this milestone in Art Deco’s journey – they were each individual, passionate, artistically craving and independent designers with their own influences and rich portfolios.

       Starting with the most renowned founder of the Decorative Artists Society, Hector Guimard, born in 1867, “was an important French architect, interior designer and designer of Art nouveau objects.” (www.hector-guimard.com, 2007) Influenced heavily by the Belgian designer and architect Victor Horta, Guimard’s most famous work was Paris’ Art Nouveau metro entrances, with their artistic legacy surviving to this present day – 86 of them to be exact. Completing main bodies of personal work, Guimard took it upon himself to accept various commissions for projects, eventually becoming the pin-up for Art Nouveau - and rightfully so, with HectorGuimard.com stating he was “regarded as the leading exponent of the Art nouveau style, which is often called the "Style Guimard" in France.” (www.hector-guimard.com, 2007). This was a feat by all means; he became an icon and astoundingly, an influence to his influences. His artistic legacy was an eventuality of passion and attention to detail. “No detail was unimportant to him” (www.hector-guimard.com, 2007) – his work with iron, steel and colour in architecture left an influential ripple that confidently placed the foundation of Art Deco. But he was not alone.

     Eugene Grasset was a man of many artistic trades – “carpet patterns, decorative iron, jewellery, calendars, postage stamps, and much more.” (www.eugene-grasset.com, 2007). Born May 25^th, 1841, in a French speaking Switzerland city named “Lausanne”, Grasset started his journey studying architecture at a school in Zurich. Although not a conclusive success, he travelled the world, ravishing and soaking up the variety of cultures surrounding him. Egyptian, Aztec and Parisian are just a few to name and through it, eventually came home from his sophisticated venture, “active in all areas of applied art, including furniture design, book illustrations, and posters.” (www.eugene-grasset.com, 2007). His famous versatile portfolio of work included the façade of the Hôtel de Dumas in Paris, mosaics in Saint Etienne in Braire and stained glass windows in the cathedral at Orléans. Although not the cultural icon Guimard was, the “versatility and the trends in his works” were solely responsible for his comparisons to reformers such as Walter Crane. In that fact, he became an invaluable tool to the Decorative Artists Society - a bible of cultural knowledge, leaving only one more designer to complete the comprehensive trio - Raoul Lachenal.

     Working “in his father's studio until 1911, when he established a new workshop at Boulogne-sur-Seine.” (www.jasonjacques.com, 2011), Raoul Lachenal focused on the art of ceramics. With a heavy exertion of influence from his father, Edmond Lachenal, organically formed influences beamed through his glazed ceramic work. However, his work still retained a personal character - a personal expression. After developing his accomplished portfolio, he finally exhibited his extravagant stoneware at the Paris salons in 1904.  With a “positive reception” to such work as the Lotus Charger and Curvy Vines, he took that as a successful milestone and began to develop upon it. He “adopted an additional decorative mode: incising geometrical designs on stoneware and filling the sections with vividly contrasting slips.” - Key design aspects that eventually defined the movement, Art Deco. Whilst he was not a great versatile, influential pioneer like Grasset or Guimard, Lachenal had developed a precise talent for decoration, and brought his geometric character to the Decorative Arts Society.

          As a collective, all three designers brought their palette of varied knowledge and experience to the table to develop a unification of styles, influences and ideas. The result? An artistic society which demonstrated the evolution of French decorative arts. However, although each designer brought their talent to push Art Deco to its apex between the wars, The Great War brought along with it an industrialised world to facilitate The Great Depression – a point in history that tortured the wealthy art style of Art Deco. Along with the biased, elitist movement, the wealthy shapes and the vibrant colours, Art Deco and its facilitator, the Decorative Arts Society, waned. Regardless, by this point, Art Deco had already left its stamp of cultural and artistic history – it had an image, an atmosphere, even a way of life.

     However, years passed before Art Deco reached its apex. It was only until the “Exposition Universelle” of 1900 that promoted Paris’s achievements of the past century that Art Deco “really” started to naturally manifest as its own independent movement. It was at this retrospective that the “Decorative Artists Society was founded following the Universal Exposition of 1900” (www.arthistory.net, 2005). This was to become the most crucial step of Art Deco’s journey as its early members were influential designers - Hector Guimard, Eugene Grasset and Raoul Lachenal. Coincidentally, these designers just happened to practice Art Deco’s main influences – Art Nouveau, Cubism and Modernism. These are the individuals that eventually set the foundations, built upon the foundations and set the standard Art Deco is internationally identified by today. Not years later, in 1925, did the “Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes” take place, where John M. Cunningham states “the style was first exhibited” (www.britannica.com, 2012). Before this, it was a developing style, attempting to find its feet and keep its footing as the style “Style Modern” (www.britannica.com, 2012). It was at this famed exhibition, that the term “Art Deco” was coined – which, as surprising as it is, was an abbreviation of the exhibitions name which propelled it into the cultural spotlight.

THE CULTURAL IDENTITY OF ART DECO

        “Hollywood is Art Deco, Art Deco is Hollywood” (www.youtube.com, 2011) – a single quote from Dr Susan Currell, an expert in American Studies, which summarises Art Deco as a whole. It’s “all about glamour”, historian Carolyn Mcdowall confidently states. The fact is, the general public didn’t see Art Deco’s influences in homes, rather, they were exposed to it through television and cinema. In fact, Hollywood owes its success to Art Deco, as does Art Deco owe part of its international success to Hollywood. France had heard of its name and seen its design, but it was only after this overexposure to the glamorous new-age statement that it started to flood culture with its artistic integrity – its idolised image. British designers such as Clarice Cliff introduced Art Deco to the mass market in the 1920, but it was Hollywood’s Art Director Frederick Gibbons that marketed the movement consciously to give Hollywood the glamorous, modern stereotype the 1920’s to 1940’s film industry has today. It “Represents novelty” and was “what people looked for” for in entertainment. Films like “Sabrina” (1954) had Art Deco influences - the buildings, the fashions, the female independence, the interior design and the extravagant furniture. “Our Dancing Daughters” (1928), a classic noire film, clearly showed the fashionable “Flapper” style women were often pictured in – it was independence, beauty and glamour. However, it was not the sum of its parts that conjured Art Deco’s representation to the public, it was the parts themselves.

“The characteristic features of these pavilions included zigzag architectural setbacks, the use of unusual materials, the incorporation of decorative wall paintings and ornate metal and glass worked in geometric and floral patterns. Exquisite metal work by Edgar Brandt and decorative glass by Lalique were to be found.” (Eva Weber, E. W. (2003) Art Deco.  JG Press.)

     By observing architecture such as the Chrysler Building, The Golden Gate Bridge and the Morecombe Hotel, you can see how the quote retains validity. Famous for its mathematical and elegant geometric shapes, Art Deco became heavily influenced over the early 20th century. In the UK you have the Midlands Hotel in Morecombe, inspired by the geometrical focus Art Deco adopts. In the US you have the Chrylser Building which was inspired by the trademark Sunburst Motif, and the Golden Gate Bridge which focuses on mathematical shapes to facilitate function. Art Deco’s identity even finds itself within the interiors of cinema theatres - cinemas such as the Royal Palace Theatre.

          It was this consolidation of attributes that composed the general cultural image Hollywood utilised and in turn, the image the world adopted. However, these parts originated from the designers that implemented them into the mix – designers who were influenced both individually and as a collective society.

THE INSPIRATIONS OF ART DECO

          The Art of Babylon. Ancient Egypt. Aztec Mexico. Africa. A culmination of historical styles that spawned the common household image of Art Deco and, without realising it, modern society is exposed to its massive influence day by day. Now, look back at the quote from Carolyn Mcdowall - “It borrowed from virtually all the design stars of the past in order to fashion the future” (www.youtube.com, 2010). Now look at the aforementioned cultures – these are the design stars so vaguely mentioned in Mcdowall’s commentary and with them, Art Deco created a collage of these artistic inspirations to create a whole new vision of the present, and an ambition of the future. But there was one design style which prompted its cloud nine ambition - Art Nouveau, its forerunner movement.

      Many find it hard to differentiate between these two. Simply because Art Deco is the spiritual younger brother of Art Nouveau and in turn, share many similar ideologies and visual qualities. So what is Art Nouveau? It’s “Fluidness, curvy, intricate, decorative, flowery.” (www.youtube.com, 2011) says Spencer Thompson. There were a lot of natural elements incorporated into Art Nouveau pieces – it was a decorative statement - a protest against the mass producing, industrial revolution. In this movement ‘decorative’ is the operative adjective. Art Deco had similar aims and visual aspects – decoration through elegance, shapes and imagery. However, the difference here is that Art Nouveau was a reaction. Art Deco was an observation and glorification, borrowing mainly from its design hero Art Nouveau, twisting it with its own character for a literal but exaggerated representation of modern society. But there was one more design style culprit that created the shadow that Art Deco could light – Avant Garde.

    Vam.co.uk states that Avant Garde was “The new visual language, colour and iconography” (www.vam.co.uk, 2003). Its geometric abstract and visually fragmented vocabulary placed the foundation for Art Deco to colour. As a design style that was also a combination of forerunner styles, Avant Garde was a statement of dynamic modernism. It was this statement and this ideology alone that inspired the young Art Deco. Think of Avant Garde as the dotted lines that Art Deco could connect, followed by colouring in between those influenced lines with Nouveau’s colourful, decorative palette – the result is Art Deco, a movement which took from the past, to create the new.

       So, Art Deco was a natural evolution of various styles and cultures. It progressed with a little artistic and social assistance to define a generation. It then witnessed another milestone – The Great Depression - forcing Art Deco into hiding. But in this wane, it left Art Nouveau’s and Avant Garde’s influential shadows to stand its own spotlight. It placed the stamp at the end of its story, leaving behind its legacy - a legacy that influenced others. Now, in the present day, Art Deco has come full circle. It “is enjoying a substantial revival of interest” (Eva Weber, E. W. (2003) Art Deco.  JG Press.)

ART DECO TODAY

       Mass production in the mid-20^th century forced Art Deco into the industrial revolution’s aftermath, to be left in the dark with only threads of light to highlight its parts. Now, in the 21^st century, its legacy remains as a whole, but its book seemingly remains closed, waiting for a new chapter. These threads of light remain within the various examples of lasting architecture, fashion and furniture. However, there are still enthusiasts out there that believe Art Deco’s heritage and legacy are as important now, as they were in the early 20^th century. Art Deco Society of Boston is one of such governments. The society’s goal “is the preservation of our Art Deco and Modern architectural heritage.” (www.bostonartdeco.com, 2009). And with Art Deco’s remnants aging every day, the society aims to preserve key locations and works that symbolise its legacy. But even within this desperate grasp on Art Deco’s legacy, it still makes itself known around the world. The Midlands Hotel and the Chrysler Building are examples already discussed, but Art Deco hides within the cracks today’s influences forget to polish over with its ignorance. It was said that Art Deco featured heavily in theatres, this has not changed. The Cineworld Cinema is the most popular cinema in the UK. The photo to the right, taken in Didsbury, is one of the many identical screens around the in the UK. Look closely and instantly seen, is the sunburst motif created by the use of light and shadow - in this case it is actually used to present light rather than to represent an ideology or symbol like the Chrysler Building succeeded in doing, with its sunburst peak as if to say "Look at this, look at what our country has accomplished". This Cineworld in Didsbury, like many others around the country, simply used it for effect - understandable considering its magnificent effect. 

CONCLUSION

          Art Deco started as a conceptual vision, inspired by what came before it, adopting various aspects of various ideologies, directions and historical designs. It took its journey, blossoming with a little help from exhibitions, influential designers, ambitious societies and pop culture. In the end, it reached its apex during the wars, lost its relevant energy, and waned through time and events. However, in its partial demise, remained legacy – a legacy that influenced the future, leaving a lasting impression to artistically cherish. Replacing, were new interpretations of modern society and new visions of the future - movements such as Futurism and Memphis, which were more relatable. However, without Art Nouveau, Avant Garde, Cubism and Modernism, today’s predecessor movements wouldn’t exist, nailing Art Deco’s legacy to our history. Satisfying and approving its goal – to borrow “from virtually all the design stars of the past in order to fashion the future” (www.youtube.com, What is Art Deco?, 2010). This remained core to the movement Art Deco, proving that although flawed in its bias towards the elite, Art Deco was a milestone in the arts.  

NEXT POST: VIOLENCE IN VIDEO GAMES: BONUS ROUND DEBATE